Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Current Practice and Potential... Evaluation Approach Results Conclusions References

During the drug-candidate screening and development process, investigators often conduct two types of in vitro drug metabolism studies to assess the potential for P450¹-based drug interactions. One type of study characterizes the metabolic pathway of the new drug and the potential for other drugs to modify the metabolism of the new drug. The other type of study evaluates the potential for the new drug to alter the metabolism of other drugs. Due to the availability of antibodies against specific P450 enzymes, cDNA-expressed enzymes, purified enzymes, and selective chemical inhibitors, the unequivocal identification of the major P450 isoform responsible for the metabolism of a new drug can be easily established. However, predicting the potential for the new drug to alter the metabolism of other drugs usually relies on the evaluation of the effect of the new drug on the rate of a probe reaction that represents a specific P450 enzyme activity. The second type of evaluation is more challenging and is the focus of this review.

	Current Practice and Potential Problems

Top Abstract Introduction Current Practice and Potential... Evaluation Approach Results Conclusions References

According to a survey of 194 new drugs approved in the United States from 1992 to 1997, industry investigators use different probe reactions to represent the same P450 enzyme activities for evaluating the modulatory potential of a new drug (Table 1) (Yuan et al., 1999). When the same inhibitor is evaluated using different probe assays for the same P450 enzyme activity, the outcome of the drug interactions can be different. Also, investigators use different experimental conditions for the same assay. Some studies are not conducted under the optimal conditions. During the preparation of this review we surveyed an additional 44 drug applications submitted from 1997 to 1999, to determine whether recent progress in the area of in vitro drug metabolism changed the common practices. The results of the second survey are consistent with those of the previous one (Table 1, Fig. 1).

View larger version (46K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Fig. 1.   Probe reactions used to characterize enzyme activities, surveyed from 44 drugs approved in 1997 to 1999 period.

The phenomenon of different assays providing different results for the same enzyme is most notable for CYP3A4 activity, as recent publications indicate. Wang et al. (2000) examined the mutual inhibition among the four commonly used CYP3A4 substrates testosterone, terfenadine, midazolam, and nifedipine. They found that although testosterone partially inhibits hydroxylation of terfenadine and midazolam, it does not inhibit nifedipine oxidation. Based on a study of the modulatory effect of 34 compounds on 10 commonly used CYP3A4-mediated reactions, Kenworthy et al. (1999) reported that the effect is substrate-dependent. Haloperidol, for example, activates dextromethorphan N-demethylation by 20%, but it inhibits nifedipine oxidation by 96%, even though CYP3A4 catalyzes both reactions. Stresser et al. (2000) showed that the extent of substrate dependence for the quantitative inhibition parameters (IC₅₀) is as large as 195-fold among four tested CYP3A4 reactions.

The in vitro experimental conditions may influence the accurate assessment of drug interaction potential. Reports indicate that various solvents, for example, may have different effects on P450 probe reactions (Chauret et al., 1998; Hickman et al., 1998; Busby et al., 1999). At 0.2% (v/v), acetonitrile does not affect chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation (used as the CYP2E1 probe reaction), but dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at 0.2% (v/v) inhibits the reaction by >80%. As a result, an incubation with DMSO is less sensitive and is subject to greater error when determining whether a new drug inhibits the same reaction. Through a careful enzyme kinetic study, Tang et al. (2000) showed that acetonitrile (3%, v/v) increases intrinsic clearance for CYP2C9-based diclofenac hydroxylation by 87%, but it decreases CYP2C9-based celecoxib hydroxylation by 25%.

In addition to using the appropriate solvent in the incubation, a probe reaction should proceed under initial rate conditions. To proceed under initial rate conditions, the experiment should use optimal experimental conditions, such as substrate concentrations, incubation time, and enzyme protein content. Deviation from optimal experimental conditions may result in an underestimation or overestimation of changes in enzyme activity, and thereby lead to incorrect conclusions regarding the drug interaction potential of the new drug.

The potential influence of probe substrates and experimental conditions on the assessment of in vitro drug interactions has a significant impact on the drug development process and regulatory decisions. The in vivo drug interaction guidance published by the Food and Drug Administration in 1999 (www.fda.gov/cder/guidance) indicates that investigators may use in vitro drug interaction data to conclude that a new drug does not inhibit a specific P450 activity (Food and Drug Administration guidance). In practice, the in vitro evidence is usually collected from one probe reaction per enzyme, and the conclusion is extrapolated to all substrates for the same enzyme. The significant regulatory impact of this approach and potential problems associated with current practice observed in our surveys prompted us to evaluate the appropriateness of in vitro methodologies that pharmaceutical industry investigators commonly use to study P450-based drug interactions. We hope that this evaluation leads industry investigators to adopt a more consistent and accurate in vitro approach. Our ultimate goals are to promote 1) development of in vitro results that provide a reliable extrapolation to in vivo drug interactions; and 2) consistent regulatory submissions that allow comparisons across different drug applications and product labels. Although it is acceptable for industry investigators to use different probe substrates for the same enzyme activity, as a step toward standardization we want to provide guidance regarding the preferred probe substrates and experimental conditions.

	Evaluation Approach

Top Abstract Introduction Current Practice and Potential... Evaluation Approach Results Conclusions References

We conducted two in-house surveys, as described previously, to determine which probe reactions pharmaceutical industry investigators use for each enzyme (Table 1; Fig. 1). Detailed evaluations were conducted for the most commonly used probe reaction(s) for each enzyme (Fig. 1), as well as those reactions deemed to have additional value for in vivo use. Although we do not consider the potential for in vivo use a necessary criterion in the selection of a preferred substrate, we recognize that some investigators prefer using the same probe in vitro and in vivo. The evaluation primarily focused on the specificity, selectivity, and sensitivity of a reaction for the enzyme that it represents. We reviewed the literature information from in vitro P450-based metabolism studies using purified enzymes, cDNA-expressed enzymes, selective chemical inhibitors, inhibitory antibodies as well as studies on enzyme kinetic analyses. For our evaluation, an ideal probe substrate is the one with a simple metabolic scheme, so that the formation rate of a metabolite specifically reflects the activity of one distinct P450 enzyme. Preferably, the metabolite formed does not undergo sequential metabolism. The reaction should be selective, with at least 80% of the formation of a metabolite being carried out by a single enzyme. In addition to the above-mentioned scientific criteria, the following practical criteria are relevant: the commercial availability of the assayed molecular species (i.e., parent drug and the metabolite); the availability of an assay that is sensitive, rapid, and simple; and reasonable in vitro experimental conditions. We also address cautions to exercise and difficulties encountered when extrapolating in vitro information to in vivo use for some reactions.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Current Practice and Potential... Evaluation Approach Results Conclusions References

CYP1A2. Human liver microsomes (HLMs) contain relatively high constitutive levels of CYP1A2 (10-15% of the total P450 content of human liver), but not CYP1A1, which is more readily detected in extra-hepatic tissues under induced conditions. Environmental factors affect CYP1A1 and CYP1A2 expression levels, complicating the in vitro-to-in vivo extrapolation. CYP1A2 metabolizes many clinically important drugs such as amitriptyline, imipramine, theophylline, clozapine, tacrine, and zileuton. According to our survey, 45% of the submissions use phenacetin O-deethylation to form acetaminophen to represent CYP1A2 activity (Fig. 1). However, industry investigators also use several substrates other than phenacetin to evaluate CYP1A2 activity. We chose to review caffeine N3-demethylation, in addition to phenacetin O-deethylation, because it is a widely used in vivo substrate.

Phenacetin O-Deethylation. Phenacetin is an analgesic and antipyretic drug no longer marketed for human use in the United States. The frequent use of this substrate in vitro may be due to the availability of the parent compound and metabolite, and the fast and simple high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection assay with high sensitivity for the reaction.

Caffeine N3-Demethylation. As with phenacetin O-deethylation, the rate of caffeine N3-demethylation to form paraxanthine is biphasic in HLMs. CYP1A2 is responsible for the high-affinity component with a K_m value of 200 to 500 µM, and unidentified P450s are responsible for the low-affinity pathway, with a K_m value of 20 to 30 mM (Grant et al., 1987; Tassaneeyakul et al., 1993, 1994). Studies using cDNA-expressed enzymes, monoclonal antibody against CYP1A2, chemical inhibitors, and enzyme kinetics validate the involvement of CYP1A2 in the high-affinity pathway (Grant et al., 1987; Butler et al., 1989; Tassaneeyakul et al., 1992). At 1 mM caffeine, CYP1A2 contributes to only 70% of the paraxanthine formation (Tassaneeyakul et al., 1992). At substrate concentrations 0.1 mM, the paraxanthine formation rate reflects CYP1A2 activity. However, due to the detection limit on conventional high-performance liquid chromatography system, caffeine N3-demethylation often is carried out at high substrate concentrations, usually at 0.5 to 5 mM unless radiolabeled drug or liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry is used, and at high microsomal protein concentrations, up to 2 mg/ml (Grant et al., 1987). In addition, caffeine N3-demethylation is sensitive to solvent effects. Methanol at 1% (v/v) inhibits the reaction by >80%, whereas acetone and acetonitrile at the same concentration stimulate the reaction by >200% (Hickman et al., 1998).

CYP2A6. CYP2A6 is an important enzyme for precarcinogen activation and oxidation of certain drugs. It exhibits significant ethnic-related genotypic or phenotypic deficiency (Shimada et al., 1996). CYP2A6 substrates include coumarin, aflatoxin B1, nicotine, N-nitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosodimethylamine, and N-nitrosonornicotine. Our surveys indicate 7-hydroxylation of coumarin is the only reaction that industry investigators use to assess CYP2A6 activity (Fig. 1; Table 1).

Coumarin 7-Hydroxylation. Studies with CYP2A6 inhibitory monoclonal antibody show that at substrate concentrations 10 µM, more than 90% of the 7-hydroxylation of coumarin in HLMs is carried out by CYP2A6, demonstrating the unequivocal role of CYP2A6 in coumarin 7-hydroxylation (Li et al., 1997; Sai et al., 1999; Yang et al., 1999). Among nine cDNA-expressed enzymes, only CYP2A6 catalyzes this reaction (Ono et al., 1996). Consistently, kinetic studies in HLMs show monophasic formation of 7-hydroxy-coumarin at commonly used substrate concentrations of 0.1 to 10 µM, with a K_m value of 0.5 to 2 µM (Shimada et al., 1996; Draper et al., 1997).

CYP2B6. Cytochrome P450 2B6 is the only member of the CYP2B family expressed in humans. However, it has not been studied extensively due to unavailability of a probe substrate and reported low levels of the enzyme in human tissues (Shimada et al., 1994). Recent studies indicate that the quantity of CYP2B6 in the liver is underestimated due to a lack of sensitive techniques and antibodies. In our surveys, we observe that few industry investigators characterize the activity of this enzyme in in vitro studies.

S-Mephenytoin N-Demethylation. The more recently conducted second survey of 44 submissions to United States Food and Drug Administration indicates that some investigators use S-mephenytoin N-demethylation to nirvanol to represent CYP2B6 activity (Fig. 1). The available evidence in the literature supports the selectivity of this reaction for CYP2B6. Ko et al. (1998) report biphasic kinetics for nirvanol formation, with high- and low-affinity K_m values of 174 and 1900 µM, respectively. However, Heyn et al. (1996) assume monophasic kinetics and report a mean K_m value of ~800 µM. The discrepancy seems to be due to the differences in the substrate concentration ranges used by these investigators.

CYP2C9. CYP2C9 is a member of the CYP2C subfamily, the second largest P450 subfamily after CYP3A. It exhibits great genetic variation among individuals and is involved in the metabolism of many clinically important drugs that have a narrow therapeutic range, including carbamazepine, phenytoin, and warfarin. Current knowledge is just beginning to allow a clear separation of CYP2C8 from CYP2C9. According to our survey, tolbutamide 4'-hydroxylation is the preferred probe reaction used in 80% of the submissions to characterize both enzymes collectively (Fig. 1). Among other drugs that are used as probe substrates for CYP2C9, we reviewed the warfarin assay because it is one of the in vivo probes most extensively studied by industry investigators (Marroum et al., 2000).

Tolbutamide 4'-Hydroxylation. Tolbutamide 4'-hydroxylation is the initial and rate-limiting step of tolbutamide elimination. Studies with cDNA expressed enzymes show that at substrate concentrations 500 µM, 90% of tolbutamide is hydroxylated by CYP2C9 and 10% by CYP2C8 (Minors et al., 1988; Relling et al., 1990; Ono et al., 1996). An immunoblotting assay with antibody developed against CYP2C9 provides further evidence to support the predominant role of CYP2C9 in tolbutamide 4'-hydroxylation (Edwards et al., 1998). In HLMs with substrate concentrations up to 2.0 mM, tolbutamide hydroxylation exhibits simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics with apparent K_m values ranging from 60 to 400 µM, with most values between 100 and 200 µM (Miners et al., 1988; Bourrie et al., 1996). However, recent reports show that CYP2C19 may also catalyze the reaction with a K_m value similar to CYP2C9 (Lasker et al., 1998; Wester et al., 2000). The contribution of CYP2C19 to overall tolbutamide 4'-hydroxylation may be minimal, considering the limited protein expression of this enzyme in normal human liver. However, CYP2C19's catalytic role in CYP2C9-deficient liver may be important.

S-Warfarin 7'-Hydroxylation. Several P450s metabolize warfarin, but with different regio- and stereoselectivity. At therapeutic doses, >85% of S-warfarin is biotransformed to 6'- and 7'-hydroxy S-warfarin in a 1:3 ratio (Toon et al., 1986). With purified and cDNA expressed P450s, CYP2C9 has the highest activity toward S-7'-OH-warfarin formation, followed by CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 (Rettie et al., 1992). In HLMs, the formation of S-7'-OH-warfarin is inhibited strongly by sulfaphenazole and correlates with tolbutamide 4'-hydroxylation (Hall et al., 1994). At substrate concentrations up to 200 µM, typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics is observed, with a K_m of 1 to 5 µM (Lang and Bocker, 1995; Hemeryck et al., 1999). The formation of 6'-OH-metabolite is also carried out by CYP2C9. It has the same K_m value as that of 7'-OH metabolite formation, but with one-third of the V_max value (Rettie et al., 1992; Kunze et al., 1996). However, at substrate concentrations 50 µM, at least one other pathway (possibly CYP3A4) also contributes to 6'-OH-formation.

CYP2C19. CYP2C19 is a genetically polymorphic enzyme responsible for the metabolism of mephenytoin, omeprazole, diazepam, and many psychotherapeutic agents. Poor metabolizers represent ~2.5 to 5% of Caucasian populations, 19% of African populations, and up to 30% of Asian populations (Pollock et al., 1991; Flockhart, 1995). Mephenytoin, an anticonvulsant agent, has long been used as an in vitro and in vivo probe substrate for CYP2C19. Its unequivocal role in drug development is reflected in our survey, where it is the only drug used to assess CYP2C19 activity (Fig. 1; Table 1) Recent studies suggest that omeprazole (5-hydroxylation) may also be used as a probe for CYP2C19 activity (Flockhart, 1995). However, in vitro studies show that CYP3A4 carries out the same reaction for omeprazole. At 10 µM, the contribution of each enzyme depends on the ratio of their expression levels in HLMs (Yamazaki et al., 1997). Considering the much higher expression level of CYP3A4 compared with CYP2C19, we do not consider omeprazole a preferred in vitro probe for CYP2C19 activity.

S-Mephenytoin 4'-Hydroxylation. Mephenytoin exists as a racemic mixture of R- and S-enantiomers and its metabolism is stereospecific. In HLMs of extensive metabolizers, S-mephenytoin is metabolized to the 4'-hydroxyl metabolite and nirvanol (Jurima et al., 1985). Studies with inhibitory antibody against CYP2C19 and purified and cDNA-expressed enzymes validate the exclusive role of CYP2C19 in 4'-hydroxylation of S-mephenytoin (Shimada et al., 1986; Wrighton et al., 1993; Inoue et al., 1997). Kinetic studies of S-mephenytoin 4'-hydroxylation consistently show monophasic Michaelis-Menten kinetics, with a K_m of 31 to 340 µM (Jurima et al., 1985; Hall et al., 1987; Chiba et al., 1993) in HLMs. The variability in K_m values reported in different studies primarily reflects different experimental conditions; but it may also reflect genetic variations, especially in HLM prepared from Asian or African individuals where the percentage of poor metabolizers is high. In the poor metabolizers, S-mephenytoin 4'-hydroxylation is not mediated by CYP2C19 but by other enzymes in place of CYP2C19. Thus, microsomes that are deficient in CYP2C19 should not be used to examine CYP2C19-based drug interactions.

CYP2D6. CYP2D6 is a polymorphically expressed P450 enzyme. About 5 to 10% of Caucasians are poor metabolizers of CYP2D6 substrates. As with polymorphically expressed CYP2C19, using prototype substrates to assess CYP2D6-based drug interaction is meaningful only in the extensive metabolizer's liver microsomes. Although CYP2D6 only constitutes about 2% of total P450 enzymes in the liver (Shimada et al., 1994), it is responsible for metabolizing drugs in a variety of therapeutic classes, including antidepressants, antipsychotics, and -blockers. Our survey indicates that dextromethorphan (O-demethylation) and bufuralol (1'-hydroxylation) are the two in vitro CYP2D6 probe substrates preferred by industry investigators. More than 60% of submissions used bufuralol as the probe substrate to assess CYP2D6 activity, and 30% used dextromethorphan.

Bufuralol 1'-Hydroxylation. Bufuralol is a chiral adrenoceptor antagonist that undergoes extensive oxidative metabolism in humans (Francis et al., 1982; Dayer et al., 1983, 1986), where the aliphatic 1'-hydroxylation accounts for 95% of bufuralol clearance (Mankowski, 1999).

Dextromethorphan O-Demethylation. Dextromethorphan, an antitussive drug, undergoes two parallel oxidative metabolic pathways, O-demethylation by CYP2D6 to form dextrorphan (DXP) and N-demethylation by CYP3A to form 3-methoxymorphinan (Jacqz-Aigrain et al., 1993). Both of these products undergo sequential metabolism in vitro, unless optimal incubation conditions are used (Hickman et al., 1998).

CYP2E1. CYP2E1 metabolizes chlorzoxazone, acetaminophen, and the volatile anesthetics, including enflurane, sevoflurane, methoxyflurane, and isoflurane. Among these drugs, chlorzoxazone is the preferred in vitro probe substrate used in 60% of the surveyed investigator submissions (Fig. 1).

Chlorzoxazone 6-Hydroxylation (6-OH). Chlorzoxazone is an analgesic muscle relaxant that can be used in in vitro and in vivo drug metabolism studies. After ingestion, chlorzoxazone is rapidly absorbed and extensively metabolized. In HLMs, 6-OH-chlorzoxazone is the sole metabolite formed, which makes the assay highly specific.

CYP3A. CYP3A is the most abundant P450 enzyme in humans, accounting for an average 30 to 40% of total P450 protein in the liver. It has three isoforms in various tissues: CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 predominantly in liver and gut, and CYP3A7 in fetal liver. Current data indicate that CYP3A4 is the most important CYP3A member with regard to involvement in clinically significant drug interactions. Many probe reactions represent the activity of this enzyme, as reflected in our survey. The substrate used most often by industry investigators is testosterone, followed by midazolam, nifedipine, and erythromycin (Fig. 1).

Testosterone 6-Hydroxylation. Steroid hydroxylation has long been recognized as a CYP3A-mediated reaction. In HLMs, numerous studies demonstrate that selective CYP3A4 inhibitors diminish the 6-hydroxylation of testosterone (Wrighton et al., 1989; Newton et al., 1995; Bourrie et al., 1996). Specific antibodies against CYP3A4 inhibit more than 90% 6-OH-testosterone formation at substrate concentrations of 200 to 250 µM (Gelboin et al., 1995; Mei et al., 1999; Shou et al., 2000). Studies with purified human proteins (Yamazaki and Shimada, 1997) and cDNA-expressed enzymes (Waxman et al., 1991; Ono et al., 1996) provide more evidence showing that all CYP3A members, other than CYP3A7, catalyze testosterone-6-hydroxylation; CYP3A4 exhibits the highest activity. CYP2C9 and CYP2C19 also catalyze the reaction, but at 1/10 the rate of CYP3A4. In HLMs, CYP3A4-mediated 6-OH-testosterone formation has a K_m of 50 to 100 µM. No significant solvent effect is seen with methanol and acetonitrile at solvent concentrations 1% in either HLMs or cDNA-expressed enzymes (Chauret et al., 1998; Busby et al., 1999). We conclude that, at substrate concentrations at or lower than 250 µM, testosterone-6-hydroxylation rate primarily reflects the CYP3A4 activity, and thus can be used to probe drug interaction potential of a new drug toward this enzyme in vitro.

Midazolam 1'-Hydroxylation. Midazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine routinely used to induce sedation and anesthesia. It is available for both intravenous and oral administration, which provides a unique opportunity to study gastrointestinal-based or liver-based drug interactions in vivo.

Use of Two or More Probe Reactions for CYP3A4-Based Drug Interactions. Although the knowledge of CYP3A4-catalyzed reactions is growing fast, in vivo CYP3A4-based drug metabolism and interactions remain among the most difficult scenarios to predict in vitro. The difficulty arises from the complex substrate-enzyme interaction at the molecular level (Ueng et al., 1997), the involvement of efflux transport systems in the substrate's disposition in vivo (Takano et al., 1998; Yumoto et al., 1999), and the contribution of gastrointestinal metabolism (Gorski et al., 1998).

	Conclusions

Top Abstract Introduction Current Practice and Potential... Evaluation Approach Results Conclusions References

In this survey study, we review the most commonly used in vitro probe substrates from pharmaceutical industry submissions. These probe substrates have been widely studied and their characteristics are described in the literature. Table 2 summarizes our recommended reactions for all of the evaluated P450 enzymes.

Because the selectivity of represented P450 depends on the specific experimental conditions, the use of appropriate experimental conditions in in vitro studies is crucial. In particular, it is important to understand the enzyme kinetics of the reaction and the involvement of high-affinity and low-affinity enzymes (when multiple enzymes metabolize the same reaction) to determine the appropriate substrate concentrations to use. To study high-affinity enzyme, one should use substrate concentrations that reflect the low K_m enzyme activity (e.g., bufuralol 1'-hydroxylation and dextromethorphan O-demethylation for CYP2D6); and for a low-affinity enzyme, one should use high substrate concentrations (e.g., S-mephenytoin N-demethylation for CYP2B6 and chlorzoxazone 6-hydroxylation for CYP2E1). Because of the observed significant solvent effects on reaction rates (especially at solvent concentration >1%), if possible, investigator should avoid using organic solvent or use it at low strength. For CYP3A4, two or more probe reactions may be needed to yield an overall evaluation of potential drug interaction. For other enzymes, such as CYP2E1, further investigations for a better probe reaction may be needed.

Opinions regarding the most appropriate probe substrates for individual P450 enzymes are evolving. In addition to the probe substrates presented in this article, industry and academia investigators use other appropriate probe substrates. The proceedings of a consensus meeting convened in 2000 include a representative list of preferred and acceptable in vitro probe substrates (Tucker et al., 2001). Under appropriate experimental conditions, these substrates provide useful information.

The in vitro probe reaction is a useful tool to screen for potential in vivo drug interactions. Due to genetic variation, the influence of environmental or hormonal factors, as well as intrinsic limitations of in vitro systems, the quantitative prediction of in vivo drug interactions for an individual patient remains a challenge. However, with the rapid growth of our knowledge and technology in drug metabolism and disposition, quantitative prediction may be achievable in the future. The conduct of high-quality in vitro studies is the first step toward this goal.