Enzyme-catalyzed processes of first-pass hepatic and intestinal drug extraction
Introduction
It has long been recognized that some drug molecules are much less effective when administered by mouth than when given parenterally. A number of causes for this phenomenon can be considered, including instability of the drug molecule in the gastrointestinal environment, incomplete release of drug from the dosage form, poor intestinal permeability, and inadequate drug concentrations in blood resulting from a delayed or erratic rate of entry into the body. It has also become clear that some orally administered drugs display low systemic availability, and diminished efficacy, because of extensive pre-systemic or first-pass metabolism. While factors that limit drug release in the gastrointestinal lumen can be overcome with proper drug formulation, first-pass metabolism is an unavoidable obstacle to the achievement of optimal bioavailability. Indeed, for some drugs, sic., lidocaine and fentanil opioids, it effectively precludes oral drug therapy. For others, such as the new HIV protease inhibitor, saquinavir, and the immune suppressant, tacrolimus, a mean oral bioavailability of <20% was accepted in the absence of better alternatives. Unfortunately, a metabolic barrier that limits oral bioavailability often brings with it the problem of significant inter-individual variability in systemic blood concentrations of drug as a consequence of variability in metabolic enzyme expression. Understanding the biochemical and physiologic basis for variability in the extent of first-pass drug metabolism is an essential step in optimizing oral drug therapy. This chapter will review general principles of drug clearance by the two principal presystemic eliminating organs, the liver and the small intestine.
Drug metabolizing enzymes in the liver and gut mucosa are well situated to limit the systemic exposure to foreign molecules that have been absorbed from the gastrointestinal lumen. It can be argued that this evolutionary development provides an advantage to herbivorous or omnivorous animal species since numerous molecules, such as the alkaloids, with profound and sometimes adverse pharmacological effects are found in plant food sources. Any foreign molecule that is absorbed into the capillary beds of the small and large intestine must pass through the liver via the hepatic portal vein before access to the rest of the body is achieved (Fig. 1). Only those that are absorbed into the lymphatic system or distal rectum effectively bypass the liver. The most optimal site for drug absorption is across the villi of the proximal small intestine. Columnar epithelia that form the surface barrier to the gastrointestinal lumen (Fig. 2) contain relatively high amounts of oxidative, conjugative and hydrolytic drug metabolizing enzymes. Foreign molecules which gain access to the intestinal capillary bed by diffusion or transport across the lumenal plasma membrane of the most mature enterocytes must pass though this intracellular enzymatic barrier. Thus, if enzyme activities are sufficiently high, first-pass metabolism at the mucosal epithelium can approach 100% extraction efficiency. Similarly, if a foreign molecule moves readily from the hepatic sinusoid into hepatocytes, metabolism during first passage through the liver can also approach 100% extraction efficiency.
The architecture of the gastrointestinal mucosa is exquisitely designed for the task of xenobiotic absorption after oral intake. Drug absorption at this site can be described as a sequence of thermodynamically driven events. Disintegration of the dosage form and dissolution of drug is generally controlled by formulation but can be affected by peristaltic movement, lumenal pH, the release of bile salts and the presence of food. For most drugs (excluding some sustained release formulations), absorption occurs predominately within the duodenum and jejunum. Absorption across the gut wall is mediated by either transcellular and paracellular mechanisms. That is, drug can either diffuse or be transported across the apical and basolateral plasma membranes of villous epithelial cells or it can move between cells by passive diffusion. Studies with Caco-2 cell monolayer cultures —a human colorectal cell line— suggest that transcellular absorption predominates for most lipophilic drugs, whereas polar, hydrophilic compounds are taken up via a paracellular mechanism 1, 2, 3, 4.
Whether the transcellular or paracellular mechanism is operative, the rate of passive drug absorption across the apical epithelium will be dictated, according to Fick's law, by the magnitude of the lumenal–vascular concentration gradient and the permeability of drug through the unstirred water layer at the surface boundary of the lumen–epithelium and through the epithelial apical and basolateral plasma membranes. Movement of drug into the villous epithelium positions it for intracellular, enzyme-catalyzed metabolism. In addition, for many peptide or peptide-based drugs, extracellular, enzyme-catalyzed degradation can also occur, within the epithelial brush border and unstirred water layer. Drug in the intracellular or intercellular space will continue to diffuse along a concentration gradient into the interstitial space found between the epithelial basement membrane and capillary endothelium, and subsequently diffuse across a `leaky' endothelium for delivery into capillary blood. Mucosal capillary blood flow drains into the superior and inferior mesenteric veins which converge to form the hepatic portal vein.
The hepatic portal vein branches within the liver to form the hepatic acinus, a complex capillary bed intimately associated with cells of the liver, including parenchymal cells, the primary site of hepatic drug metabolism. From the perspective of first-pass drug delivery, a hepatic portal–parenchymal cell concentration gradient drives the diffusion of drug across the vascular endothelium, the Space of Disse, and finally, the sinusoidal plasma membrane of the hepatocyte. Diffusion of drug into the hepatocyte competes with bulk flow of blood that removes drug from the sinusoidal space into venules that ultimately form the hepatic vein. The uptake of drug into parenchymal cells is not obligatory during first-pass through the liver. However, drug that enters the parenchymal cell is subject to a wide variety of metabolic and excretory processes. Under conditions when metabolism is rapid and diffusion from blood to the intracellular enzyme active site is not rate-limiting, metabolism acts to maintain a concentration gradient and promote the extraction of drug from the vascular compartment.
Section snippets
Liver enzymes
The drug metabolizing capacity of the liver is impressive. Cytochromes P450, glucuronosyl transferases, sulfotransferases and all other drug metabolizing enzymes are found in abundance [5]. From the standpoint of first-pass metabolism, the family of cytochrome P450 enzymes represents the most important of the hepatic enzymes. It has been estimated that the entire endoplasmic reticulum of the liver, which comprises approximately 5% of body weight (∼1500 g for adults), contains approximately
Enzymology of the gastrointestinal tract
Many of the drug metabolizing enzymes found in human liver have also been detected within the mucosal epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract. These include cytochromes P450 62, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, glucuronosyl transferases 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, sulfotransferases 75, 80, 81, 82, N-acetyl transferase 78, 83, glutathione S-transferases 70, 76, esterases 78, 83, epoxide hydrolase 69, 70 and alcohol dehydrogenase 84, 85, 86. Many of these enzymes have been implicated in the metabolism of
References (215)
Epithelial transport of drugs in cell culture. I: A model for studying the passive diffusion of drugs over intestinal absorptive (Caco-2) cells
J. Pharm. Sci.
(1990)- et al.
Correlation between oral drug absorption in humans and apparent drug permeability coefficients in human intestinal epithelial (Caco-2) cells
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
(1991) - et al.
Prediction of in vivo drug metabolism in the human liver from in vitro metabolism data
Pharmacol. Ther.
(1997) - et al.
Hepatic elimination of flowing substrates: the distributed model
J. Theor. Biol.
(1978) Evidence favoring the venous equilibrium model for hepatic clearance of (S)-(−)-propranolol
J. Pharm. Sci.
(1984)- et al.
Hepatic binding and Michaelis–Menten metabolism of drugs
J. Pharm. Sci.
(1986) - et al.
Isolation and characterization of human liver cytochrome P450 2C19: correlation between 2C19 and S-mephenytoin 4′-hydroxylation
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
(1993) - et al.
Allelic variants of human cytochrome P450 2C9: baculovirus-mediated expression, purification, structural characterization, substrate stereoselectivity, and prochiral selectivity of the wild-type and I359L mutant forms
Arch. Biochem. Biophys.
(1996) - et al.
Omeprazole is an aryl hydrocarbon-like inducer of human hepatic cytochrome P450
Gastroenterology
(1990) - et al.
Extrahepatic, differential expression of four classes of human alcohol dehydrogenase
Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.
(1993)